• Physician Thomas Sydenham, 1624
• Physician Thomas Dover, 1660

At the age of eighteen Sydenham was entered at Magdalen Hall, Oxford; after a short period his college studies appear to have been interrupted, and he served for a time as an officer in the Parliamentarian army during the Civil War. He completed his Oxford course in 1648, graduating as bachelor of medicine, and about the same time he was elected a fellow of All Souls College. It was not until nearly thirty years later (1676) that he graduated as M.D., not at Oxford, but at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his eldest son was by then an undergraduate.

After 1648 he seems to have spent some time studying medicine at Oxford, but he was soon back in military service, and in 1654 he received the sum of £600, as a result of a petition he addressed to Oliver Cromwell, pointing out the various arrears due to two of his brothers who had been killed and reminding Cromwell that he himself had also faithfully served the parliament with the loss of much blood.

In 1655 he resigned his fellowship at All Souls and married, and probably a few years later went to study medicine at Montpellier. In 1663 he passed the examinations of the College of Physicians for their license to practice in Westminster and 6 miles round; but it is probable that he had been settled in London for some time before that. This minimum qualification to practice was the single bond between Sydenham and the College of Physicians throughout the whole of his career.

He seems to have been distrusted by some members of the faculty because he was an innovator and something of a plain dealer. In a letter to John Mapletoft he refers to a class of detractors "qui vitio statim vertunt si quis novi aliquid, ab illis non prius dictum vel etiam inauditum, in medium proferat" ("Who by a technicality suddenly turn if something is new, if someone should disclose something not previously said or heard"); and in a letter to Robert Boyle, written the year before his death (and the only authentic specimen of his English composition that remains), he says, "I have the happiness of curing my patients, at least of having it said concerning me that few miscarry under me; but [I] cannot brag of my correspondency with some other of my faculty .... Though yet, in taken fire at my attempts to reduce practice to a greater easiness, plainness, and in the meantime letting the mountebank at Charing Cross pass unrailed at, they contradict themselves, and would make the world believe I may prove more considerable than they would have me."

Sydenham attracted to him in warm friendship some of the most discriminating men of his time, such as Boyle and John Locke.

His first book, Methodus curandi febres (The Method of Curing Fevers), was published in 1666; a second edition, with an additional chapter on the plague, in 1668; and a third edition, further enlarged and bearing the better known title of Observationes medicinae (Observations of Medicine), in 1676. His next publication was in 1680 in the form of two Epistolae responsoriae (Letters & Replies), the one, "On Epidemics," addressed to Robert Brady, regius professor of physic at Cambridge, and the other "On the Lues venerea," (On [Venereal Diseases]) to Henry Paman, public orator at Cambridge and Gresham Professor of Physic in London.

In 1682 he published another Dissertatio epistolaris (Dissertation on the Letters), on the treatment of confluent smallpox and on hysteria, addressed to Dr William Cole of Worcester. The Tractatus de podagra et hydrope (The Management of [Arthritis] and [Dropsy]) came out in 1683, and the Schedula monitoria de novae febris ingressu (The Schedule of Symptoms of the Newly Arriven Fever) in 1686. His last completed work, Processus integri (The Process of Healing), is an outline sketch of pathology and practice; twenty copies of it were printed in 1692, and, being a compendium, it has been more often republished both in England and in other countries than any other of his writings separately. A fragment on pulmonary consumption was found among his papers. His collected writings occupy about 600 pages 8vo, in the Latin, though whether that or English was the language in which they were originally written is disputed.

Although Sydenham was a highly successful practitioner and witnessed, besides foreign reprints, more than one new edition of his various tractates called for in his lifetime, his fame as the father of English medicine, or the English Hippocrates, was posthumous. For a long time he was held in vague esteem for the success of his cooling (or rather expectant) treatment of smallpox, for his laudanum (the first form of a tincture of opium), and for his advocacy of the use of "Peruvian bark" in quartan agues, in modern terms, the use of quinine - containing cinchona bark for treatment of malaria caused by Plasmodium malariae. There were, however, those among his contemporaries who understood something of Sydenham's importance in larger matters than details of treatment and pharmacy, among them Richard Morton and Thomas Browne who owned copies of several of Sydenham's books.

But the attitude of the academical medicine of the day is doubtless indicated in Martin Lister's use of the term sectaries for Sydenham and his admirers, at a time (1694) when the leader had been dead five years. If there were any suspicion that the opposition to him was quite other than political, it would be set at rest by the testimony of Dr Andrew Brown, who went from Scotland to inquire into Sydenham's practice and has incidentally revealed what was commonly thought of it at the time, in his Vindicatory Schedule concerning the New Cure of Fevers. In the series of Harveian Orations at the College of Physicians, Sydenham is first mentioned in the oration of Dr John Arbuthnot (1727), who styles him "aemulus Hippocratis" ("rival of Hippocrates"). Hermann Boerhaave, the Leyden professor, was wont to speak of him in his class (which had always some pupils from England and Scotland) as "Angliae lumen, artis Phoebum, veram Hippocratici viri speciem" ("The light of England, the skill of Apollo, the true face of Hippocrates"). Albrecht von Haller also marked one of the epochs in his scheme of medical progress with the name of Sydenham. He is indeed famous because he inaugurated a new method and a better ethics of practice, the worth and diffusive influence of which did not become obvious (except to those who were on the same line with himself, such as Morton) until a good many years afterwards. It remains to consider briefly what his innovations were.

First and foremost he did the best he could for his patients, and made as little as possible of the mysteries and traditional dogmas of the craft. Stories told of him are characteristic: Called to a gentleman who had been subjected to the lowering treatment, and finding him in a pitiful state of hysterical upset, he conceived that this was occasioned partly by his long illness, partly by the previous evacuations, and partly by emptiness. "I therefore ordered him a roast chicken and a pint of canary." A gentleman of fortune he diagnosed with hypochondria was at length told he could do no more for him, but that there was living at Inverness a certain Dr Robertson who had great skill in cases like his; the patient journeyed to Inverness full of hope, and, finding no doctor of the name there, came back to London full of rage, but cured withal of his complaint.

Of a piece with this is his famous advice to Sir Richard Blackmore. When Blackmore first engaged in the study of physic he inquired of Dr Sydenham what authors he should read, and was directed by that physician to Don Quixote, which, said he, "is a very good book; I read it still." There were cases, he tells us, in his practice where "I have consulted my patients' safety and my own reputation most effectually by doing nothing at all."

"Of all the remedies it has pleased almighty God to give man to relieve his suffering, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium"

"It becomes every man who purposes to give himself to the care of others, seriously to consider the four following things: First, that he must one day give an account to the Supreme Judge of all the lives entrusted to his care. Secondly, that all his skill, and knowledge, and energy as they have been given him by God, so they should be exercised for his glory, and the good of mankind, and not for mere gain or ambition. Thirdly, and not more beautifully than truly, let him reflect that he has undertaken the care of no mean creature, for, in order that he may estimate the value, the greatness of the human race, the only begotten Son of God became himself a man, and thus ennobled it with his divine dignity, and far more than this, died to redeem it. And fourthly, that the doctor being himself a mortal man, should be diligent and tender in relieving his suffering patients, inasmuch as he himself must one day be a like sufferer."

It was in the treatment of smallpox that his startling innovations in that direction made most stir. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that Sydenham wrote no long prescriptions, after the fashion of the time, or was entirely free from theoretical bias. He had doctrines of disease, as every practitioner must have; but he was too much alive from the multiplicity of new facts and to the infinite variety of individual constitutions to aim at symmetry in his theoretical views or at consistency between his practice and his doctrines. His treatment was what he found to cause it matches your eyes answer best, whether it were secundum artem ("Second skill") or not.

His fundamental idea was to take diseases as they presented themselves in nature and to draw up a complete picture (Krankheitsbild of the Germans) of the objective characters of each. Most forms of ill health, he insisted, had a definite type, comparable to the types of animal and vegetable species. The conformity of type in the symptoms and course of a malady was due to the uniformity of the cause. The causes that he dwelt upon were the evident and conjunct causes, or, in other words, the morbid phenomena; the remote causes he thought it vain to seek after.

Acute diseases, such as fevers and inflammations. he regarded as a wholesome conservative effort or reaction of the organism to meet the blow of some injurious influence operating from without; in this he followed the Hippocratic teaching closely as well as the Hippocratic practice of watching and aiding the natural crises. Chronic diseases, on the other hand, were a depraved state of the humors, mostly due to errors of diet and general manner of life, for which we ourselves were directly accountable. Hence his famous dictum: "acutos dico, qui ut plurimum Deum habent authorem, sicut chronici ipsos nos" ("I say what hurts, most over which God has authority, just like we ourselves over the chronic").

Sydenham's nosological method is essentially the modern one, except that it wanted the morbid anatomy part, which was first introduced into the natural history of disease by Morgagni nearly a century later. In both departments of nosology, the acute and the chronic, Sydenham contributed largely to the natural history by his own accurate observation and philosophical comparison of case with case and type with type. The Observationes medicae and the first Epistola responsoria contain evidence of a close study of the various fevers, fluxes and other acute maladies of London over a series of years, their differences from year to year and from season to season, together with references to the prevailing weather, the whole body of observations being used to illustrate the doctrine of the epidemic constitution of the year or season, which he considered to depend often upon inscrutable telluric causes. The type of the acute disease varied, he found, according to the year and season, and the right treatment could not be adopted until the type was known.

There had been nothing quite like this in medical literature since the Hippocratic treatise, On Airs, Waters and Places; and there are probably some germs of truth in it still undeveloped, although the modern science of epidemiology has introduced a whole new set of considerations. Among other things Sydenham is credited with the first diagnosis of scarlatina and with the modern definition, of chorea (in Sched. monit). After smallpox, the diseases to which he refers most are hysteria and gout, his description of the latter (from the symptoms in his own person) being one of the classical pieces of medical writing. While Sydenham's natural history method has doubtless been the chief ground of his great posthumous fame, there can be no question that another reason for the admiration of posterity was that which is indicated by RG Latham, when he says, "I believe that the moral element of a liberal and candid spirit went hand in hand with the intellectual qualifications of observation, analysis and comparison."

Hardly anything is known of Sydenham's personal history in London. He died at his house in Pall Mall on 29 December 1689, aged 65. He is buried in St James's Churchyard, Piccadilly, where a mural slab was put up by the College of Physicians in 1810.

A memorial stone dedicated to Thomas can be found halfway up the staircase of St James's Church, Pall Mall. It was put there by the now defunct 'Sydenham Society’.

Among the lives of Sydenham are one (anonymous) by Samuel Johnson in John Swan's translation of his works (London, 1742), another by CG Kuhn in his edition of his works (Leipzig, 1827), and a third by Robert Gordon Latham in his translation of his works published in London by the Sydenham Society in 1848. See also Frédéric Picard, Sydenham, sa vie, ses œuvres (Paris, 1889), and JF Payne, T. Sydenham (London, 1900). Dr John Brown's Locke and Sydenham, in Hares subsecivae (Edinburgh, 1858), is of the nature of eulogy. Many collected editions of his works have been published, as well as translations into English, German, French and Italian. Dr WA Greenhill's Latin text (London, 1844, Syd. Soc.) is a model of editing and indexing. The most interesting summary of doctrine and practice by the author himself is the introduction to the 3rd edition of Observationes medicae (1676). A colleague, Dr John Browne, described him as 'the prince of practical medicine, whose character is as beautiful and as genuinely English as his name.

He studied medicine under Thomas Sydenham in Pall Mall, London. During this time, he contracted smallpox and was treated with the "cooling method" by Sydenham, described by Dover in his 1732 book Ancient Physician's Legacy to his Country:

"I had no fire allowed in my room, my windows were constantly open, my bedclothes were ordered to be laid no higher than my waist. He made me take twelve bottles of small beer, acidulated with spirit of vitriol, every twenty - four hours."

Dover married in 1681 and soon returned to Barton - on - the - Heath when his father became ill, taking care of the farm and working as a country practitioner. When his father died in 1696, Dover moved to Bristol, where he set up his own practice and worked with the Bristol Corporation of the Poor as an honorary physician at St. Peter's Hospital. There, he assisted the "Guardians of the Poor" with their poor relief efforts, becoming the first medical practitioner to offer services to the organization.

Dover's own practice proved very lucrative. Bristol was a large city with very few physicians and many wealthy merchants and tradesmen. The spread of typhus added to his client list and meant that Dover was seeing up to 25 patients a day. He was soon able to afford his first house in the fashionable Queen Square, home also to Woodes Rogers, a sea captain with whom Dover would embark on a new career.

In 1702, Dover took a trip to the West Indies. This adventure clearly resonated with him; and, in the following years, he organized a more permanent career change. In 1708, William Dampier arrived in Bristol hoping to secure a new privateer mission to capture a Spanish treasure ship. Dover bought into the plan, becoming part owner and second captain of the Duke, a privateer under the command of Rogers. The doctor was styled "Captain Dover", having contributed £3,312 to the voyage, the second largest amount of thirty investors. Alongside this responsibility, Dover was given the role of president of the expedition council, allowing him two votes in all debates. There were four surgeons, and he had no medical charge, but would need his skills later in the voyage.

On 1 August 1708, the Duke set sail alongside the Duchess on a privateering voyage. On 2 February 1709, a light was seen on the Juan Fernández Islands, and Dover led a landing party to investigate its source. They discovered a fire lit by Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish sailor left on the island in 1705 because he considered the ship he was aboard, the Cinque Ports, did not appear to be seaworthy. The Cinque Ports was part of an expedition led by Dampier, which stopped for supplies at the archipelago. Selkirk's beliefs proved to be well founded; the ship sank one month later with few survivors. His four year stay on the island and eventual rescue were the inspiration for the novel Robinson Crusoe written by Daniel Defoe, a friend of Woodes Rogers.

In April 1709 Dover led a landing party with entirely different intentions.

The two ships encountered the city of Guayaquil in what is now Ecuador, and a raiding party was sent in. Dover's command was successful, and only two members of the crew were lost in the attack. However, around 180 of those on the ships became extremely ill after digging up the town's graves in search of items of value. Dover returned to his medical roots and directed the surgeons in their work, ordering them to bleed the ill in both arms and to give them a diluted sulphuric acid drink. This regimen proved successful, and only a handful of sailors died.

At one point during the voyage, the ships visited Java, where Dover would sell the Marquis, a captured ship, to Captain Opie. Opie would cross paths with Dover again later in life when he met and married Dover's daughter.

The voyage was coming to an end when the privateers captured another prize whose captaincy was, after a heated debate among the council members, given to Dover. The three year expedition arrived home, and the prizes were shared out between the investors. Dover received a total of £6,689, more than enough to secure a high position in society. However, he was not yet ready to settle and embarked on a holiday across Europe.

The privateers have been labelled as pirates, but the enactment of The Prize Act in 1708 gave legal backing to their actions.

Dover re-established himself as a physician in Bristol before moving to Strand, London, in 1720. Around this time his wife died and he lost most of his fortune due to bad investments including as much as £6,000 in the collapse of the South Sea Company. In 1721 he was successful in his application to join the Royal College of Physicians. His past experience of contracting smallpox and the care he received from Sydenham suddenly became particularly relevant when there was an outbreak in London, with Dover successfully replicating the "cooling method".

In 1729 he returned briefly to Bristol, spending much of his time writing a book that would become both successful and controversial. The Ancient Physician's Legacy to his Country was first published in 1732 after Dover had returned to London. He saw patients at the popular Jerusalem coffee house.

Dover's medical book, The Ancient Physician's Legacy to his Country, was aimed at the education of physicians and the general public. He gives descriptions of around 120 diseases, writing from his experiences and detailing his adventures as though the book were a travelogue. Though he shows some degree of wisdom regarding pharmacology, his knowledge of medicine is described as being small while his descriptions of some diseases are presented in the "flimsiest fashion" and "outrageous inaccuracies are set down with no little dogmatism". Dover also makes many accusations of prejudice within the College of Physicians and writes several denigrating comments about his colleagues in general.

From his assertions in this book Dover acquired the nickname "Doctor Quicksilver". His recommendation of mercury (sometimes called quicksilver) as a cure for numerous ills was challenged by several detractors. However, the popularity of the book and the forcefulness of Dover's character ensured that the use of mercury would be in vogue for many years. One anonymous report in 1733 challenges the use of the liquid metal as a cure for syphilis and starts hinting towards mercury poisoning:

"A young gentleman ... had the venereal disease caused by fast living. Dr Dover ordered the young gentleman to take crude mercury. At first he improved but later the patient had a violent dysentery which made an end of all his complaints and his life also".

The book was republished several times with the eighth and final edition being released twenty years after Dover's death. It was also translated into French. The lasting contribution from within its pages is Dover's powder, first recommended for its analgesic (painkilling) properties and then for its use as a diaphoretic (induces perspiration). The combination of opium, ipecacuanha, and potassium sulphate (later liquorice) was over time adjusted in the constituent quantities but was in use for over 200 years.

Dover's successes with his book and his powder helped to bring him back to financial solvency. In 1736 he moved into a house in Arundel Street with friend Robert Tracy, finally retiring in his eighties. He died there in 1742. Dover was buried in Stanway, Gloucestershire, in the Tracy family vault. Glenside Hospital museum maintains an exhibition about Dover.